URBANIZATION SHAPES AVIAN COMMUNITY STRUCTURE ALONG AN URBAN–RURAL GRADIENT IN A SEMI-ARID LANDSCAPE

Abstract

Urbanization is increasingly transforming habitat structure and environmental conditions, with significant implications for avian communities. This study examined the effects of urbanization on bird diversity, abundance, and functional composition across urban, peri-urban, and rural habitats in District Karak, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Standardized point-count surveys were conducted at 36 sampling points representing the three habitat categories, while environmental variables, including anthropogenic noise, canopy cover, shrub cover, and built-up characteristics, were also recorded. In total, 9,799 individual birds representing 38 species and 26 families were recorded. Urban habitats were characterized by a greater dominance of disturbance-tolerant species, particularly granivores and omnivores, whereas rural habitats supported a greater representation of insectivorous species. Species richness was positively associated with canopy cover, while anthropogenic noise showed a negative association with avian richness. Bird community composition differed substantially among habitat categories (PERMANOVA, R² = 0.720, P < 0.001), demonstrating pronounced differentiation in avian assemblages along the urbanization gradient. These findings indicate that urbanization influences not only bird abundance and diversity but also the composition and functional structure of avian communities. Maintaining mature trees, shrub vegetation, connected green spaces, and relatively quiet habitats may therefore contribute to the conservation of avian diversity in expanding urban landscapes. This study provides an important empirical baseline for avian conservation and future long-term monitoring in the semi-arid landscapes of District Karak and comparable regions of Pakistan.